Explain what is analog computer?(प्रथम एनालॉग कंप्यूटर कौन सा था?

Analog computer 

 Analog: A type of computer that uses the continuous variation aspect of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities (analog signals) to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent different quantities symbolically and by varying values of both time and amplitude (digital signals).

Analog computer 

 What is analog computer?.

•   Analog computer is a special type of computer that is used to process analog data.
•  In other words, “Analog computer is a computer which is used to measure physical quantities. It is used to measure electric current (electric flow), frequency (intensity) and resistance (resistance).
• In simple words, “The computer by which physical quantities are measured is called analog computer. Physical quantities are temperature, pressure, speed, length and breadth etc.
• Analog data is data that is represented in physical form and analog data is data that keeps changing continuously.
• Analog computers help to process constantly changing data. For example, whatever we see or hear about keeps changing, we call it analog data or changing data.
• Analog computers work on analog signals and transfer data in continuous signals.
• Analog computers process constantly changing data, due to which its accuracy may also be wrong.

 Timeline of analog computer

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 This is a list of examples of early computing devices considered to be the predecessors of the modern computer. Some of them may even have been dubbed 'computers' by the press, although they may fail to fit modern definitions.

The Antikythera Mechanism, a type of device used to determine the positions of celestial bodies known as an orrery, was invented by British physicist, information scientist and historian of science Derek J. De Sola was described by Price as an early mechanical analog computer.

It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera Wreck near the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and is dated to BC. 150~100 BC, during the Hellenistic period. Instruments with a level of complexity comparable to the Antikythera Mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

Many mechanical aids to calculations and measurements were constructed for astronomical and navigational use. The planisphere was first described by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in the 1st or 2nd century BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. Combining the planisphere and dioptra, the Astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of solving many different types of problems in spherical astronomy. a mechanical calendar computer

And an astrolabe incorporating gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235.Abu Rayhan al-Biruni invented the first mechanically geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe Invented, and early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, c. 1000 AD 

Sector, a calculating tool used to solve problems in ratio, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various operations such as square and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and was used in gunnery, surveying, And was done in navigation.

The planimeter was a manual instrument that calculated the area of a closed figure by locating it with a mechanical linkage.

The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, soon after the publication of the concept of logarithms. It is a hand-operated analog computer for multiplication and division. As the development of the slide rule progressed, additional scales provided transcendental functions such as inverses, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry, and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, especially for solving time-distance problems in light aircraft.

In 1831–1835, the mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana designed a perpetual-calendar machine that, through a system of pulleys and cylinders, would set the perpetual calendar for every year from 0 AD (that is, 1 BC) to 4000 AD. Could have predicted. Track leap years and varying day lengths.

The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was very useful for navigation in shallow water. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate the predicted tide level for a set period at a particular location.

 Types of analog computers

1.  Slide Rule
2. Differential Analysers
3. The Castle Clock
4. Electronic Analog Computers
5. Mechanical Analog Computers

 A brief history of analog computers

 In the digital age, returning to analog computing may seem counterintuitive. However, specific computational tasks present challenges that digital computers, bound by their binary nature and von Neumann architecture, find challenging to manage efficiently. This realization has led to renewed interest in analog computing, especially for complex simulation, optimization problems, and real-time processing tasks.

One area where analog computing is returning is neural networks and artificial intelligence (AI). Neural networks involve calculations that mimic the operation of the human brain, which are inherently analog, because neurons employ a form of "fuzzy" reasoning rather than binary. Analog computers can simulate this behavior more naturally and efficiently than digital systems, leading to faster and more energy-efficient neural network calculations. Research into the use of analog circuits for deep learning shows promising results, especially in reducing power consumption, an important factor in today's energy-conscious technological environment (Ambrogio, S., et al. (2018) ). "Equivalent-Accuracy Accelerated Neural-Network Training Using Analog Memory"). Here we provide a brief timeline of the history of analog computers, from ancient times to modern analog computing start-ups.

 Ancient water-powered mechanisms (circa 300 BC – 500 AD)

 Water-powered devices, considered some of the earliest forms of analog computers, were primarily used by ancient civilizations for timekeeping, astronomy, and irrigation purposes. The Greeks developed sophisticated water clocks, known as "clepsydras", which were later adopted and enhanced by various cultures, including the Egyptians and Chinese. These devices often use a steady flow of water to measure elapsed time, correlating physical quantities (water levels) with the passage of time, which is a fundamental feature of analog computation (Krebs, Robert E. ( 2004). "Water Clocks". Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions and Discoveries of the Ancient World).

  One remarkable artifact, the Antikythera Tantra (c. 200 BC), believed to be an ancient Greek analog computer, exemplifies the astronomical expertise of ancient civilizations. Discovered in a shipwreck off the coast of Antikythera, Greece, this complex device of gears and dials was used to predict celestial positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological purposes, long before the digital age of mechanical computing. (Freeth, T., et al. (2006). “Decoding the Ancient Greek Astronomical Calculator Known as the Antikythera System.” Nature).

 Mechanical calculating machines (17th century – 19th century)

 The era of mechanical calculating machines began in the early 17th century with the invention of the slide rule, often considered one of the earliest analog computers. William Oughtred, an English mathematician, created the slide rule in about 1622, enabling users to perform multiplication and division operations by aligning logarithmic scales. This innovation marked a significant leap forward in the computational equipment available at the time and remained widely used until the advent of digital electronics in the mid-20th century (Ifra, Georges (2001). "The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer").

The 19th century saw the rise of more complex mechanical computers, notably Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, designed in the 1830s. Although never fully constructed during Babbage's lifetime, the Analytical Engine was intended to employ various mechanical components, including gears and levers, to perform arithmetic operations. This machine is often regarded as a precursor to modern computers, creating the fundamental concepts for programmable devices. Babbage's efforts underlie important advances in mechanical computing technologies and his influential role in shaping contemporary computational systems (Swede, Doron (2000). "The Cogwheel Brain: Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer").

 Slide rule: 17th century - mid-20th century

 The slide rule, an early form of analog computer, was an essential tool for a variety of calculations before the advent of digital computers and calculators. Invented by the English clergyman William Oughtred around 1622–1630, based on the ideas of the Scottish mathematician John Napier, who discovered logarithms, the slide rule allowed users to multiply and divide by adding or subtracting logarithmic scales (Cajori, F. , 1920, "William Oughtred, the great teacher of mathematics of the seventeenth century," The Scientific Monthly).

The slide rule has a fixed middle section and a sliding cursor that can align with different scales on the rule, enabling users to perform mathematical calculations based on logarithmic relationships. It became an indispensable tool for scientists, engineers, and students, facilitating complex calculations ranging from simple multiplication and division to advanced engineering calculations like basic arithmetic, trigonometry, and logarithms. Its portability and convenience have made it a popular choice for calculations on the go.

Despite its widespread use, the slide rule began to decline in the mid-1970s with the advent of affordable electronic calculators, which offered higher accuracy and ease of use. However, the slide rule remains an important milestone in the history of computing and engineering education, symbolizing an era when precision engineering and human skills combined to solve complex calculations. It is still used in educational contexts to demonstrate the principles of logarithms and is treasured by enthusiasts and collectors (Klein, AR, 1975, "Slide Rule Simplified," Chemical Engineering).

 Electronic analog computer (20th century)

 The development of electronic analog computers marked a revolutionary change in computational technology during the 20th century. These systems, which rose to prominence during World War II, used continuously varying electrical signals to simulate and analyze real-world events. A notable example is the differential analyzer, a mechanical analog computer developed by Vannevar Bush at MIT in the 1930s. This machine was able to solve differential equations by integration, using a wheel-and-disk mechanism to perform calculations (Mindel, David A. (2002). "Between Man and Machine: Before Feedback, Control and Cybernetics computing").

After World War II, the relevance and capabilities of electronic analog computers expanded, especially in scientific, industrial, and military applications. These machines were invaluable in scenarios requiring real-time simulation and control, such as aircraft design and nuclear power plant management. However, by the end of the 20th century, the use of analog systems declined due to the rapid advancement of digital computers providing greater accuracy and versatility. Despite this, the principles underlying analog computation continue to influence contemporary research areas, including neural networks and quantum computing (Analog Computing at the Beginning of the Digital Age: The Work of Tom Osborne. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 2019).