Science and Technology in Ancient India(प्राचीन भारत में विज्ञान और प्रौद्योगिकी)

 Ancient india

The history of India from the rise of man to the tenth century is called the history of ancient India.

• Means of information about ancient Indians history(प्राचीन भारतीयों इतिहास की जानकारी के साधन)
• stone Age(पाषाण युग)
• copper age(ताम्र पाषाण युग)
• Bronze Age and Indus Valley Civilization(कांस्य युग और सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता)
• Vedic period(वैदिक काल)
• Post Vedic period(उत्तरवैदिक काल)
• Vedic literature(वैदिक साहित्य)
• Buddhism and Jainism(बौद्ध और जैन धर्म)
• Greek and Persian invasions(यूनानी तथा फारसी आक्रमण)
• Mahajanapada(महाजनपद)
• Mahapadmananda Nanda Maurya Empire(महापद्मनंद नंदमौर्य साम्राज्य)

1.Means of information about ancient Indians history(प्राचीन भारतीयों इतिहास की जानकारी के साधन)

 They are the sources from which information about the ancient history of India is obtained, on the basis of which history is constructed, and on the basis of which the chronology of historical events is determined. These are also called historical sources, historical materials or historical data and generally historical sources are classified into three types: primary, secondary and tertiary sources. 

By historian V. D. Mahajan, the sources of ancient Indian history are It has been classified into four types – literary sources, archaeological sources, foreign accounts, and tribal legends. These sources have been classified by Ramsharan Sharma as – physical remains, inscriptions, currencies, literary sources, foreign accounts, rural studies, and information obtained from the study of natural sciences.

2.stone Age(पाषाण युग)

 The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, point, or percussion surface. This period lasted about 3.4 million years and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC with the advent of metallurgy.

Therefore it represents approximately 99.3% of human history. Although some simple metallurgy of malleable metals, particularly the use of gold and copper for ornamentation purposes, was known in the Stone Age, it is the melting and smelting of copper that marks the end of the Stone Age.In Western Asia, this occurred around 3,000 BC, when bronze became widespread. The term Bronze Age is used to describe the period following the Stone Age, as well as to describe cultures that replaced stone with copper alloys (bronze: originally copper and arsenic, Later techniques and technology were developed to convert copper and tin) into tools. In many uses.Stone Age artefacts that have been discovered include tools used by modern humans, their predecessor species in the genus Homo, and possibly by the earlier partly contemporaneous genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus. Bone tools have been discovered that were also used during this period but have rarely been preserved in the archaeological record. The Stone Age is divided on the basis of the types of stone tools used.

3.copper age(ताम्र पाषाण युग)

It starts after the Neolithic Age, around 2000 BC to 1500 BC and is also considered a part of the Bronze Age. During this period man started using copper tools instead of stone tools. People of this civilization were not familiar with horses. It is spread in Ahad, Udaipur and Rajsamand districts in Rajasthan. If seen, this era is before the Indus Valley Civilization, but in North India, the Indus Valley Civilization which is considered to be Bronze Age. It is only after this that the Chalcolithic  (copper-stone) era is considered to have begun,

4.Bronze Age and Indus Valley Civilization(कांस्य युग और सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता)

bronze age(कांस्य युग)

Bronze Age is the period in which humans used the alloy of copper and tin. If seen on the graph of history, this time was between the Copper Age and the Iron Age. The most special thing about the Bronze Age is that in this era humans started settling in urban civilizations and mythological civilizations developed all over the world. The second special thing of this era is that all the mythological civilizations had knowledge of script also. Which helps today's archaeologists to obtain information related to that era. 

Many Bronze Age civilizations have been found around the world, including Sumerian of Mesopotamia, Mohenjodaro of India and

Bronze Age of India(भारत का कांस्य युग)

 Till the beginning of the twentieth century, all archaeologists believed that the Vedic civilization was the oldest civilization of India. But when Harappa was excavated under the leadership of Dayaram Sahni in 1921, the thinking of the whole world changed. It was revealed that not Vedic but Indus Valley Civilization is the oldest civilization of India. The most developed civilization of the Bronze Age in India was the Indus Valley Civilization. Whose most modern inhabited city, Harappa, is an excellent example of the excellent art of that time. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the Indus Valley Civilization was a developed civilization in the Bronze Age.

Indus Valley Civilization(सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता)

The Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC to 1700 BC) is the oldest of the river valley civilizations around the world. According to an article published in the journal Nature, this civilization is 8000 years old The Indus Valley Civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization and the Indus-Saraswati Civilization It developed along the banks of the Indus River and the Ghagghar/Hakkara (ancient Saraswati) River Mohenjodaro, Kalibanga, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi and Harappa were its major centers. Due to proper development of cities for the first time in this civilization, it was called urbanization This civilization is called bronze civilization due to the use of bronze first About 1,400 centers of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found out of which 925 centers are in India. 80 percent of the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization are around the Saraswati River and its tributaries Only about 3 percent of the sites found have been properly excavated

4.Vedic period(वैदिक काल)

• Rigveda(ऋग्वेद)
• Samveda(सामवेद)
• yajurveda(यजुर्वेद)
• arthveda(अर्थवेद)

1. Rigveda(ऋग्वेद):

All things are praised from this Rigveda, that is, God has revealed the qualities of all things, hence the learned people should first read Rigveda and through those mantras, know all the things from God to the earth as they are and do good in the world. Try for. The meaning of the word Rigveda is that the one which describes the qualities and nature of all things is 'Rik' Veda i.e. which is the source of true knowledge, the word 'Rigveda' is formed from these two words. From here 'Agnimile' till the end mantra 'Yatha Vaah Sushasati', there are eight Ashtakas in Rigveda and each Ashtaka has eight chapters. All the chapters together are sixty-four. The class number of each chapter has been written in the brackets. And all the squares of the eight octaves are 2024 two thousand and twenty four. And there are ten divisions in it. All the hymns and mantras in each Mandal have been written in the boxes above. In the first division, there are 24 twenty-four Anuvakas, and one hundred and ninety-one Suktas, and 1976 one thousand nine hundred and seventy-six mantras. The second consists of 4 four anuvakas, 43 forty three suktas, and 429 four hundred twenty nine mantras. The third contains 5 five anuvakas, 62 sixty two suktas, and 617 six hundred and seventeen mantras. In the fourth, there are 5 five Anuvakas, 58 fifty-eight Suktas, 589 five hundred ninety nine mantras. 6 six Anuvakas in five, 87 eighty-seven hymns, 727 seven hundred twenty-seven sixty-five mantras. Six Anuvakas in the sixth, 75 seventy-five hymns, 765 seven hundred sixty-five mantras. In the seventh, there are 6 six Anuvakas, 104 one hundred and four hymns, 841 eight hundred and forty one mantras. In the eighth chapter there are 10 ten anuvakas, 103 one hundred and three hymns, and 1726 one thousand seven hundred and twenty six mantras. In the ninth, there are 7 seven anuvakas, 114 one hundred and fourteen hymns, 1097 and one thousand ninety seven mantras. And in the tenth division there are 12 twelve Anuvakas, 191 one hundred ninety one Sukta, and 1754 one thousand seven hundred and four mantras. And in the ten mandalas, there are 85 eighty five anuvakas, 1028 one thousand twenty eight suktas, and 10589 ten thousand five hundred ninety nine mantras.

   2.Samveda(सामवेद)

Samveda is dominated by songs and music. Sama-gaan was sung by the ancient Aryans. Samaveda is the smallest of the four Vedas in terms of size and all but 99 of its 1875 mantras are from Rigveda. Only 17 mantras are found in Atharvaveda and Yajurveda. Still, it has the highest reputation, one of the reasons for which is Krishna calling it Vedanam Samavedosmi in Geeta.

Importance(महत्व)

The importance of Samaveda can be seen from the fact that it has been said in Geeta that -Vedanaan Samavedo'smi.  Apart from Geeta in Mahabharata, the importance of Samveda has also been shown in Anushashan Parva – Samvedasch Vedanam Yajushan Shatrudriyam. According to Agni Purana, by methodical chanting of various mantras of Samaveda, one can be freed from diseases and can be saved, and one's wishes can be fulfilled. Samveda is the trinity of Gyan Yoga, Karma Yoga and Bhakti Yoga. The sages developed the method of singing by compiling specific mantras. Modern scholars have also started accepting the fact that all the notes, taal, rhythm, rhyme, speed, mantra, vocal therapy, raga dance postures, expressions etc. have emerged from Samveda only. Samaveda is considered to be the successor of Rigveda, that is, it was created on the basis of Rigveda. Samaveda mainly has three parts: the first part contains the latter part of the songs of the Rigveda, the second part contains the songs of the Samaveda itself, and the third part contains a collection of music of the mantras of the Yajurveda.

  3.yajurveda(यजुर्वेद)

Yajurveda is formed by the union of the words Yajush and Veda. 

Yaj means dedication, Havan itself is called the act of dedication. 

As the name of this Veda gives meaning, in it we get the rules and methods of performing Yagya Havan. This Veda mainly tells about the correct method of performing Yagya. For this reason it is also called Karma Kand Granth. In mythological stories, there are stories of performing and getting many yagyas done like Ashyamedh, Rajasuya, Vajpayee, Agrihotra etc. 

The methods of all these yagyas and the rituals related to them are found in Yajurveda.

Yajurveda is considered to be the second Veda after Rigveda among the four Vedas. It is believed that the mantras of Rigveda and Atharveda are also found in Yajurveda. But still it is considered a separate text from Rigveda, although in some mythological and ancient texts it is also said that there was only one Veda in Triyeta era. For this reason, in this era, Yajurveda was the first to be performed for every purpose, be it the birth of a son or war. Its special thing is that other Veda mantras are poetic. That is, it is in the form of poetry. The same Yajurveda is in prose style, i.e. in the form of story. There are two branches of Yajurveda. 1 Shukla Yajurveda and 2 Krishna Yajurveda are found. 

In Shukla Yajurveda, only the basic mantras are there, it is called Shukla Veda i.e. pure Veda. 

Krishna Yajurveda contains the mantras as well as Viniyoga mantra, interpretation etc. It is called Krishna Yajurveda. 

Shukla Presently two branches of Yajurveda exist--Vadhasaniya Mandhyadit Sahita and Karma Samhita. The number of chapters in both is also 40.

 4.arthveda(अर्थवेद)

The fourth Veda of the most sacred Vedas of Hindu religion is the Samhita or Mantra part of Atharvaveda. This Veda is also called Brahmaveda. Along with praising the gods, it also contains mantras for medicine, science and philosophy. It has been said about the Atharvaveda Samhita that in whose kingdom a scholar who knows the Atharvaveda remains engaged in the work of establishing peace, that nation continues to progress without any trouble:

Importance (महत्व)

Atharvaveda means "Vedas of Atharvana". Atharvan was a sage from a Brahmin clan, who had absorbed the mantras of this Veda. Various aspects of human life, treatments, amazing powers and special dimensions have been described in it. 

The important work of Atharva Veda is treatment, protection, health, peace, removal of fear, happiness, peace, prosperity and cure of physical and mental diseases. Mantras have to be used for diagnosis. This Veda makes people experience power, energy, happiness, prosperity, security and ancient powers. 

Atharvaveda mantras contain descriptions of amazing powers, concepts of spirituality, remedies, yantras, tricks and various aspects of present life. . Science, Ayurveda, Astrology, Classical Mathematics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Geology and knowledge related to ghosts etc. are also found in this Veda. By studying and understanding Atharvaveda, a person can get rid of problems related to health and ghosts. Solution, higher efficiency, peace and satisfaction can be achieved. Its business related mantras are also used in business, job, wealth, success and economic progress. 

Atharva Veda completely covers various aspects of Hindu religion and provides higher knowledge, happiness, Provides prosperity and facilities for all activities.

   5.Post Vedic period(उत्तरवैदिक काल)

Later Vedic period (1000-600 BC) In Indian history, the period in which Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda and Brahmin texts, Aranyakas and Upanishads were composed is called Later Vedic period. Painted gray pottery was the specialty of this period, because the residents here used painted and brown colored bowls and plates made of clay. They also used iron weapons. 1000 BC Iron tools have been found in Gandhara, Pakistan. Iron tools have been found in the graves along with the dead. 800 BC It started being used in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab around 1500. 700 sites of painted gray pottery have been found in Northern Doab, of which four have been excavated-

1. Ataranjikheda(अतरंजीखेड़ा)
2. Jakheda(जखेड़ा)
3. Hastinapur(हस्तिनापुर)
4. Noh.(नोह)

In the later Vedic period, the Aryans conquered the plains of Yamuna, Ganga and Sadanira (Gandak) rivers and took them under their control. The Aryans spread to Vidarbha in the south. The main center of the later Vedic period civilization was 'Madhya Pradesh', which extended from Saraswati to Ganga Doab. It was here that there were huge kingdoms like Kuru and Panchal. From here the Aryan culture moved towards the east and spread to Kosal, Kashi and Videha. The practice of Gotra system is also believed to have started from the later Vedic period. Manav and Anga regions were outside the scope of Aryan civilization. The people living in Magadha have been called 'Vratya' in Atharvaveda. They spoke Prakrit language. In the later Vedic period, Puru and Bharat clans together were called 'Kuru' and 'Turvash' and 'Krivi' clans together were called 'Panchal' (Panchala). Initially the capital of the Kurus was in Asandivant which included Kurukshetra (land between Saraswati and Drishdwati). Soon the Kurus took control of Delhi and Northern Doab. Now his capital became Hastinapur. Balihava Pratipiya, Raja Parikshit, Janamejaya etc. were the main kings of this dynasty. Parikshit's name is found in Atharvaveda. It is believed about Janamejaya that he performed Sarpasatra and two Ashwamedha Yagya. The last ruler of the Kuru dynasty was Nichakshu. He moved the capital from Hastinapur to Kaushambi, as Hastinapur was destroyed in floods. Modern Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad come under the Panchal region. Their capital was Kampilya. An important ruler of the Panchalas was Pravahana Jaivali, who was a patron of scholars. Panchala was also known for its philosopher kings. Aaruni Shwetketu belonged to Panchal region only. The center of civilization of the later Vedic period was Madhya Pradesh. It extended from Saraswati to Ganga Doab. Ganga flows from Yamuna Doab to Saryu River. After this, the Aryans expanded up to the Varuna-Asi river and the Kashi state was established. It is mentioned in Shatapatha Brahmana that Videdhamadhav had destroyed this area with the help of his guru Rahugana through fire. Ajatashatru was considered a philosopher king. He was associated with Banaras. Gandhara district was on both the banks of Indus river. Kaikeya country was situated between Gandhara and Vyas river. According to Chandogya-Upanishad, he claimed that there is no thief, drunkard, idle, adulterer and ignorant in my kingdom. 

Madra country was situated in and around Sialkot in Punjab. Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur of Rajasthan were under Matsya state. The Aryans expanded up to Vindhyachal. Ganga-Yamuna Doab and its surrounding area was called Brahmarshi Desh. The area between Himachal and Vindhyachal was called Madhya Desh. In the Upanishad period, Videha took the place of Panchal. King Janak of Videha was a famous philosopher. The Aryans spread to Vidarbha in the south. Magadha and Anga region were outside the Aryan realm.

    6.Vedic literature(वैदिक साहित्य)

Which are famous texts written during this period, describing contemporary life and are also the oldest texts in the world. Which have been considered historical and constitute primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, together with the associated archaeological records, allow us to trace the development of the Vedic culture and to estimate its period. who migrated to the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. Vedic society was "patriarchal". The early Vedic Aryans were from a Bronze Age society centered in Punjab, organized into tribes rather than kingdoms. Their life was mainly rural. L. 1500–1300 BCE, the Vedic Aryans spread east into the fertile western Gangetic plain and adopted iron tools, useful for clearing forests and leading a more settled, agricultural life.

Vedic period In the latter half of the Bharat dynasty, the Yadu dynasty and the Kuru kingdom emerged as the main powers. Vedic society was based on Yagya and Yagya was a part of the social system. The caste system of this period was "according to work" and not according to birth. 

At the end of the Vedic period (between 700 and 500 BC), metropolitan cities and big states Mahajanapada emerged. This was accompanied by the rise of the Shramana tradition (including Jainism and Buddhism), which challenged the Vedic traditions.

• Rigveda(ऋग्वेद)
• Yajurveda(यजुर्वेद)
• Samveda(सामवेद)
• Brahmin(ब्राह्मण)
• Aranyaka(आरण्यक)
• Upanishad(उपनिषद)
• Vedanga(वेदांग)
• Sutra literature(सूत्र साहित्य)

  7.Buddhism and Jainism(बौद्ध और जैन धर्म)

There are two ancient religions of India whose birthplace is Magadha (present-day Bihar) and both the religions are flourishing even today. Generally, Mahavir Swami, the founder of Jainism, and Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, are considered to be contemporary. Many basic things of both the religions are similar. The religious terminology and moral principles of both are similar but they are emphasized in different ways. Both are religions with Shramana tradition and both believe that it is possible to attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). 

Along with similarities, there are also elements of dissimilarity in these two religions such as - Madhyamarg vs Anekantvad; Jiva vs atta anatta. Due to which Jainism could not spread more widely than Buddhism. We can see this in the following forms-

• Avoidance of the extremes of asceticism and indulgence is preached by Jainism in order to attain salvation, while Buddhism advised its worshipers to follow the middle path or the Tathagata path.
• Ahimsa: Although both emphasize the principle of non-violence, Jainism is more strict in this regard.
• Soul: Buddhism does not believe in the existence of soul whereas Jainism believes in the existence of soul in every living being.
• Regarding conduct: Buddhism emphasizes the Eightfold Path while Jainism emphasizes the Three Jewels.
• Buddhism emphasized the middle path. Under this, there was no belief in hard sadhana and struggle for salvation. But in Jainism, severe penance and renunciation of the body were considered necessary for salvation.

  8.Greek and Persian invasions (यूनानी तथा फारसी आक्रमण)

 The Persian and Greek invasions of India were an important event in Indian history which had far-reaching consequences. The Persian and Greek invasions of India began in the 6th century BC when the north-west region of India was fragmented and small kingdoms like Gandhara, Kamboja were fighting each other. Since it was easy to enter India through the passes of Hindukush, many foreign invasions started taking place on the north-western border of India. 

The Persians attacked India first and then the Greeks attacked. The Persian invasion of India took place in two phases. The first phase was carried out by Cyrus in about 535 BC and the second phase by Darius in 518 BC. The Greek attack on India was done by the famous ruler Alexander.

Persian invasion of India(भारत पर फारसी आक्रमण)

• In the sixth century BC the Persians began their invasions towards the east and west.
• The north-western part of India, which was prosperous, did not have a powerful empire like Magadha which could bring the entire region under one united empire. There were many small kingdoms which were fighting among themselves.
• The Achaemenid rulers of Iran (Persian) took advantage of the political disunity in the region and began their invasions.

Effects of Persian invasion(फ़ारसी आक्रमण के प्रभाव)

• This contact lasted for about 200 years and thus led to an increase in Indo-Iranian trade and commerce. This is evident from the Iranian coins found on the north-western border of India.
• The Kharosthi script, written from right to left, was an Iranian writing style and was introduced into India by Iranian writers.
• Mauryan sculptures and monuments, especially those of Ashoka, were greatly influenced by Iranian models.

Greek invasion of India(भारत पर यूनानी आक्रमण

1. Alexander succeeded his father Philip to the throne in 334 BC
2. In the fourth century BC, the Persians fought a war with the Greeks.
3. The Greeks, led by Alexander of Macedonia, defeated the Persian Empire and conquered Asia, Iran, and Iraq.
4. He defeated Darius III in the battle of Arbela and captured the whole of Persia.
5. He was attracted by the prosperity of India.
6. It was also believed that there was an expanse of ocean to the east of India, which led him to believe that conquering India would lead to conquering the eastern frontier of the world.

   9.Mahajanapada(महाजनपद)

 Maha mane bad bha bisal, janapada mane old Indian people i.e. the locality of special groups; (Sanskrit: शोदश महाजाणापाद) In ancient times, between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, in the area of present-day Indian subcontinent, there was a republic of Sorah Go. In this case, it was assumed that the Republic of the Republic (now the Republic of India) was close to the end of the reign of the King.

His name is often mentioned in many Buddhist scriptures, the political division of the time of Buddha and Mahavira.  6th-5th century BC was seen as a turning point in Indian history After the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, it was the first time that a large city was built in the territory of India during this period.
Features of Mahajanapada(महाजनपद की विशेषताएं)

• In the system of Mahajanapada, a king ruled, but the states known as Gana and Sangha were ruled by a group of people. Every person of this group had the title of king, Lord Mahavir and Lord Gautam had Buddhist relations with these groups.
• In the system of Mahajanapada, in Vajji Sangha and other similar states, the kings had collective control over many economic resources including land.
• Every Mahajanapada had a capital, which was surrounded by a fort and security arrangements were made. The maintenance of fortified capitals, armies and royal servants required huge financial resources.
• In the system of Mahajanapada, the main work of the rulers was to collect taxes and tribute from farmers, traders and craftsmen etc.

  10.Mahapadmananda Nanda Maurya Empire(महापद्मनंद नंदमौर्य साम्राज्या )

Nand Dynasty of Magadha, Bihar around 344 BC. to 322 B.C. Was the ruling dynasty between. Nand dynasty has been called Mahapadam Nand in the Puranas. Nanda dynasty was a dynasty of ancient India. They also had a terrible and fierce army. Nanda dynasty was founded by Mahapadmananda. He belonged to the barber caste. He has been honored with titles like Mahapadma Ekarat, Sarva Kshatrantak etc. For the first time in Indian history, an empire was established which was not elite and whose boundaries crossed the plains of the Ganges. 

The major kingdom successors of Mahapadma Nanda were - Ugrasen, Panduk, Pandugati, Bhootpal, Rashtrapal, Yovishanak, Dashsiddhak, Kaivarta, Dhananand. During his rule, Alexander had attacked India. 

When Alexander left India, after Alexander's departure, unrest and chaos spread in the Magadha Empire. Dhananand was a greedy and wealth-hoarding ruler. Despite having immense power and wealth, he could not win the trust of the public. It was he who had insulted a great scholar Brahmin Chanakya. After which Chanakya defeated Dhananand with his diplomacy and made Chandragupta Maurya the ruler of Magadha. 

During the rule of Nand dynasty, Magadha became a very prosperous empire from the political point of view. I went. Scholars like Varsha, Upavarsha, Var, Ruchi, Katyayan were born under Nanda rule. He was also a good friend of grammarian Panini Mahapadmananda. Shaktay and Sthul Bhadra were Amatyas, Jain followers of Dhananand.

 Important facts of Nanda dynasty(नंद वंश के महत्वपूर्ण तथ्य )

It is said that Nanda ruler was the predecessor king of the Maurya Empire. The founder of this dynasty was Mahapadma, who is also known as Mahapadmapati or Ugrasen. In the Puranas he has been described as the destroyer of all Kshatriyas. Who defeated rulers like Ikshvaku, Panchal, Kashi, Haihaya, Kalinga, Ashmak, Kaurava, Maithil, Shurasena and Vitihotra located in Northern, Eastern and Central India. 

While the Nanda dynasty ruled Godavari Valley - Andhra Pradesh, Kalinga - Orissa. And there are also indications towards capturing some parts of Karnataka. After Mahapadma, it is difficult to find mention of Nanda dynasty in the Puranas. There is only mention of Sukalpa in it.

Ancient India Science Technology(प्राचीन भारत विज्ञान प्रौद्योगिकी)

 To know the technology one has to take the help of ancient literature and archaeology. The literature of ancient India is very abundant and diverse. In this, apart from religion, philosophy, language, education etc., mathematics, astrology, military science, Ayurveda, chemistry, metallurgy, etc. are also the subjects covered.

• Mathematics – Vedic literature is full of the concept of zero, techniques and algorithms of algebra, concepts of square root, cube root.
• Games – Chess, Ludo, Snakes and Ladders and card games originated in ancient India.
• Fine art - Vedas were recited which had to be reciting and pure. As a result, microscopic study of sound and acoustics began in the Vedic period itself.
• Astrology
• Astronomy – Astronomy is mentioned in the Rigveda (2000 BC).
• Physics - Indian philosopher of 600 BC has clearly mentioned the theory of atom and relativity.
• Chemistry - Distillation of perfume, sulfurous liquids, manufacture of dyes and pigments, manufacture of sugar.
• Medical Science and Ayurveda - The first treatise on medicine and surgery was written in India around 800 BC.
• Military Science